CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
In
this particular chapter; findings, theories, previous researches and review of
literature related to the readiness and challenges in teaching practice and
trainee teachers will be discussed in details.
2.2
Trainee Teacher
The findings of this study reflect
on the readiness of trainee teachers towards teaching practice. Hence, the
findings will be made known to the trainee teachers and help trainee teachers
to assess their level of readiness towards teaching practice. They will be more
aware of their level of readiness and prepare themselves better. Therefore, it
will improve the effectiveness in the aspect of teaching and learning session.
This study specifically focusing on
trainee teachers instead of teachers in services because of the main objective
of this study is to measure the level of readiness of trainee teachers toward
teaching practice and challenges faced by trainees as well. Studying the
readiness of trainee teachers can reflects better on the preparedness in teaching
practice compare to teacher in services based on measuring their understanding,
challenges faced. Joshi & Chugh (2009) highlighted teachers need to be able
comprehend with knowledge from general to complex such as communication skills
as the basic knowledge to problem-solving skills.
2.3 Readiness to
teach
Practice
is important action need to be used to highlight on the importance of
preparation towards effectiveness in teaching context. Effectiveness teaching
can lead teacher to become effective in their teaching. One must be proficient
to become an effective teacher as according to these following aspects:
2.3.1
Content knowledge
Teacher’s
knowledge in subject matter gives a big impact for an effectiveness of
teaching.
“ In 1992, the Department
of Education and Science (DES) commissioned a discussion paper by Alexander,
Rose and Woodhead which stated that good subject teaching depends on teachers
knowledge, skills and understanding in the subject concerned… subject knowledge
is a critical factor at every point in the teaching process… Problems may stem
from weakness in teachers subject knowledge and understanding” (Madwell)
The knowledge of teacher can be
branched into two elements which are subject content and educational content.
It’s important for the teacher to empower the knowledge of subject matter first
before become as a teacher; it is a core for every teacher to teach the
subject. Thus, Ausubel (1968) has been claimed that what is the most important
thing for students to take as experiences in learning is they know what they
are taught by a teacher. (Wray, 1968)
For another reason of the content of
knowledge is very important in teaching and learning because it can help to
avoid student’s misunderstanding and misconception of the lesson. According to
Rumelhart (1980), he stated that teachers play important role need and to find
a way to take account the knowledge and ideas of children in order to maximise
children’s learning (Fox, 1968) . In addition, the
most important key to oppose the niche of misunderstanding one must have a deep
knowledge and depth nature of understanding concept first as highlighted by
Kimberly & Deborah. It also has been claimed from Grant Wiggins and Jay
McTighe (1998),
“To successfully
engineer understanding, educators have to be able to describe what it looks
like, how it manifests itself, and how apparent understanding (or
misunderstanding) differs from genuine understanding” (Allen,
2005)
Furthermore, teachers also should
update and have knowledge in terms of educational knowledge. Educational
knowledge is things that related to curriculum of education itself. Why it is
important for teachers to have knowledge on the curriculum itself? The
curriculum help teachers to get know about arrangement of content on subject
matter and it also provides guidance for teachers to know about the syllabus
and content they should teach according to time duration. Then, the teachers
will know how far they should teach about the content and knowledge. This is
important for teachers to look and identify students’ development and progress
towards the subject knowledge. According to Intern report (2007), teachers need
to use curriculum in teaching to allow them see student’s progress in learning
from stage by stage. It highlighted that, educational knowledge context very
important for teachers to look upon as the guidance thus to apply in teaching
and learning as it can assist teachers to assess student’s achievement towards
subject knowledge. As according to Milne (1999) highlighted a teacher should
really have a deep understanding about the subject knowledge in order to
implement several of teaching strategies. Thus, we can see it is correlated
between element of content subject and teaching strategies.
2.3.2 Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK)
In teaching profession, content
knowledge only is not enough in preparing teachers in teaching context. To
compare and contrast, pedagogical content knowledge refers to how effectively
teach a particular discipline while subject matter knowledge refers in particular
of teachers’ knowledge of subject matter.
Shulman (1986) proposed the idea of
Pedagogical Content Knowledge where he suggested pedagogy and the knowledge on
subject matter must not be treated as mutually exclusive.
“Shulman (1986)
argued for Pedagogical Content Knowledge as the content knowledge that deals
with the teaching process including the way of representing and formulating the
subject that make it comprehensible to others” (content
knowledge for teaching)
Pedagogical content knowledge can be
represented by figure 2:
“Figure 2: The Two
Circles of Pedagogical Knowledge & Content Knowledge Are Now Joined by
Pedagogical Content Knowledge. (Cited from Punya Mishra, Matthew J. Koehler
(2006))” (koehler)
Pedagogical content knowledge have two additional components which is
completed the knowledge by Kathryn (1997) (F) . The first two of
the component is teachers’ knowledge of student which includes:
i)
Abilities and
learning strategies
ii)
Ages and
development level
iii)
Attitudes
iv)
Motivation
v)
Prior knowledge of
the concept to be taught
Teachers’ knowledge on physical environment, political, social and
cultural is elements that involves the next component which students are
required to learn in.
According to past studies, trainee teachers have the lack of experience;
they may have a surface level of PCK only. Thus, PCK aspect needs to be
stressed on during the preparation of trainees. (Carpenter, Fennema, Petersen,
& Carey, 1988; Feiman-Nemser & Parker, 1990; Gudmundsdottir &
Shulman, 1987; Shulman, 1987). (Mohammed, 2015)
Kathryn (1997) has claimed that Pedagogical Content Knowledge can be
learned from a sharing session and exchanging of pedagogical content knowledge
that has already obtained with another teacher. This will encourage teachers
and enable one to apply a variety of Pedagogical Content Knowledge in teaching.
2.3.3 Skills or
knowledge about learners
In teaching, trainees must have a certain skills and knowledge in order
to assist them for a better learning session and towards becoming an effective
teacher. Classroom management is one of the most important teaching skills for
effective teaching. In fact, teachers can provide a clear understanding of
lesson to student when the classroom management is good. Thus, this is an
advantage for teachers and students to achieve learning objectives. According
to Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham (2006) effective classroom management provide
an opportunities in children’s learning. However, it’s not easy for teachers to
obtain effective classroom management as there are certain challenges that
restrict teachers to seek upon effective classroom management. Walter Doyle’s
(1986, 2006) highlighted the potentials characteristics for problems with
regards to classroom management. There are six of characteristics, namely
i)
Classroom are multidimensional
ii)
Activities occur
simultaneously
iii)
Things happen
quickly
iv)
Event are often
unpredictable
v)
There is little
privacy
vi)
Classroom have
histories
2.4 Problems and challenges encountered by trainee teachers
During teaching and learning session, teachers
cannot escape from having problems. This acts as challenges for all teachers
especially those who are lack of experience in teaching. Trainee and novice
teachers are the one of people who are commonly exposed to many problems in
teaching due to insufficient of experience, skills and knowledge. According to
Housten and Felder (1982), new teachers first experience in teaching is like to
test whether they surviving or not in teaching profession rather than to seek
personal growth and development. However, only from experience can discover and
help new teachers to learn and reflect of what was lacking in their teaching in
order to improve for better teaching. Like Bryant (2003) was stated that
mistakes in teaching is one of learning progress and learning opportunities.
Teaching program role is very important in
exposing experience in teaching for their trainee teachers. Educational
teaching program must taking care each issues regarding of their trainee
teachers in teaching. Moreover, this will help the Graduate Teaching Program
trace problems and challenges facing by trainees during teaching.
On the other hand, from a previous research
from Noormala binti M. Yunus (1998) most of problems that encountered by new
teachers in teaching is because they are not really prepared to become a
teacher from the beginning (Veenman,
1984) .
2.5 21st century learning skills
“I would rather have a failure story than
share a story of regret. My long-term goal is to form myself to accomplish task
in new ways. This applies to my teaching and learning”
Today we live in a technology and
media-suffused environment with: 1) access to an abundance of information, 2)
rapid changes in technology tools, and 3) the ability to collaborate and make
individual contributions on an unprecedented scale. To be effective in the 21st
century, citizens and workers must be able to create, evaluate, and effectively
utilize information, media, and technology. Thus, in term of teaching
profession, 21st century learning skills is one of important
evaluation on teaching-related readiness. Integrating technology in a classroom
is one of medium in 21st century learning skills.
On another side, study has been conducted from
previous research demonstrated that integrating computer and technology in
classroom can provide better classroom management and increase positive
attitude of teachers cause of this technology can assist them to conduct a
classroom. As we know, students in millennial era exposed with lots of
technology platform. Thus, they will be more interest on learning with the
technology as a medium of learning. Infodev (2001) defined that every learner
must be ready with every things and new things that always implemented in
teaching and learning process for example technology. Every aspect of teaching
can be different from day a day according to what the changes were occurred.
McConnel International (200) stated that each
learning group must be catered with specific needs thus that important of
readiness assessment in order to give solution and provider of information. In
addition, positive classroom management can be achieved because of their level
of attention increase. This study has been conducted from Shamsiah Mohamed and
Ab. Rahim Bakar (2008) who stated the most trainee teachers obtain positive
attitude from integration of computer in teaching. (Mohamed
& MOHAMED, 2008)
Embed Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) when
teaching allows us to change method and goals of learning, Brisbourne (2012).
It was important aspect in teaching 21st century. In teaching
context, understanding HOTS helps teachers to understand better of
implementation of student’s thinking skills and it also helps the teachers to
adjust teaching strategies and methods as due to response in current education
policy and students’ response. Bad effect of teachers’ fail to understand HOTS
is there will be none of teaching strategies that will work on students. Therefore,
trainee teachers must have knowledge on HOTS and find initiative to improve
level of understanding on HOTS. Thus, HOTS can be implemented effectively on
students in teaching.
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